Pratidin
Science and technology19 September 2026The Hindu, Page 8

Deep-sea discovery and environmental responsibility

Critical minerals lie on the ocean floor. So do ecosystems we barely know.

Published 19 September 2026. Written by Pratidin from the reports linked at the end; every fact checked by a separate review before publishing. How we work

In an article in The Hindu on 19 September, P. Ragavan argues that India's growing ability to mine the deep sea raises a prior question: whether everything that can be exploited should be. He suggests asking 'Do we need to mine at all?' rather than only 'How can we mine with minimum damage?', and argues that the strategic value of minerals for renewable energy should not automatically justify permission to mine.

How polymetallic nodules would be mined from the deep seabed (schematic).
How polymetallic nodules would be mined from the deep seabed (schematic). Carlos Muñoz-Royo, CC BY-SA 4.0, via Wikimedia Commons

India holds three International Seabed Authority (ISA) exploration contracts covering about 95,000 sq km in the Central Indian Ocean Basin, the Central Indian Ridge and the Carlsberg Ridge, the last granted in 2025. Exploration has identified an estimated 366 million tonnes of polymetallic nodules containing nickel, copper, cobalt and manganese. Under the Deep Ocean Mission, India is developing mining technology, underwater robotics and the MATSYA-6000 crewed submersible, and the National Institute of Ocean Technology has tested a deep-sea mining machine at about 5,270 m. In September the Earth Sciences Ministry and NIOT held an industry workshop on deep-sea mining business opportunities.

The case for caution is that the deep ocean is poorly understood, so the effects of large-scale seabed disturbance are unpredictable. Indian biodiversity surveys have recorded about 1,300 deep-sea organisms, including around 23 species new to science. The article argues that India should use the current exploration phase to build environmental baselines, set a high ecological threshold for any mining decision, and prioritise alternatives such as recycling. The ISA's mining code for commercial exploitation is still not finalised.

Practise this in the app: flashcards, quiz and a timed answer
Prelims

Prelims facts

  • The International Seabed Authority, set up under UNCLOS and based in Kingston, Jamaica, regulates mineral activity on the seabed beyond national jurisdiction.
  • India holds three ISA exploration contracts: polymetallic nodules in the Central Indian Ocean Basin, and areas on the Central Indian Ridge and the Carlsberg Ridge, about 95,000 sq km in all.
  • The Deep Ocean Mission (2021) includes Samudrayaan, with the crewed submersible MATSYA-6000.

Quick recall

Where is the International Seabed Authority headquartered?
Kingston, Jamaica.
Under which convention was the ISA set up?
The UN Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS).
How many ISA exploration contracts does India hold?
Three: Central Indian Ocean Basin, Central Indian Ridge and Carlsberg Ridge, about 95,000 sq km.
What minerals are found in polymetallic nodules?
Nickel, copper, cobalt and manganese.
How many tonnes of polymetallic nodules has India's exploration identified?
About 366 million tonnes.
What is MATSYA-6000?
India's crewed deep-sea submersible, under the Samudrayaan mission of the Deep Ocean Mission.
When was the Deep Ocean Mission approved?
In 2021.
What question does the Hindu article pose?
'Do we need to mine at all?' rather than only how to mine with minimum damage.

Prelims practice question

The International Seabed Authority is headquartered in:

  1. Geneva
  2. The Hague
  3. Kingston, Jamaica
  4. Nairobi
Show answer

Answer: (c) Kingston, Jamaica. The ISA, created under UNCLOS, is based in Kingston, Jamaica.

Use this in UPSC Mains: previous-year questions

Recurring theme: Ocean resources, seabed minerals and the environmental cost of mining

  1. 2025 · GS3 · 15 marksCovers one partUse it in the example

    Mineral resources are fundamental to the country's economy and these are exploited by mining. Why is mining considered an environmental hazard? Explain the remedial measures required to reduce the environmental hazard due to mining.

    How to use this

    Extends the mining-hazard argument to the deep seabed and gives precautionary remedies.

    • The deep ocean is poorly understood, so large-scale seabed disturbance has unpredictable effects; Indian surveys have recorded about 1,300 deep-sea organisms, including around 23 new species.
    • Note that sediment plumes and noise damage slow-recovering ecosystems, and losses may be permanent.
    • P. Ragavan argues India should build environmental baselines, set a high ecological threshold for mining and prioritise recycling; the ISA mining code is not yet finalised.
  2. 2014 · GS1 · 10 marksAnswers it directlyUse it in the body

    Critically evaluate the various resources of the oceans which can be harnessed to meet the resource crisis in the world.

    How to use this

    Supplies a detailed case of seabed minerals as an ocean resource, with India's capacity and the case for caution.

    • India holds three ISA exploration contracts covering about 95,000 sq km in the Central Indian Ocean Basin, the Central Indian Ridge and the Carlsberg Ridge.
    • Exploration has identified about 366 million tonnes of polymetallic nodules containing nickel, copper, cobalt and manganese, which are critical for batteries.
    • Under the Deep Ocean Mission (2021), India is building the MATSYA-6000 submersible, and NIOT has tested a mining machine at about 5,270 m.

Mains practice question

Deep-sea mining could secure critical minerals but at a significant ecological cost. Discuss India's approach. (150 words)

Model answer

Polymetallic nodules on the ocean floor contain nickel, cobalt, manganese and copper, which are critical for batteries. India holds ISA exploration contracts in the Indian Ocean and runs the Deep Ocean Mission (2021).

Potential

  • Reduces import dependence for critical minerals.
  • Builds technological capability through Samudrayaan and Matsya 6000.
  • Scientific discovery of deep-sea life and processes.

Ecological concerns

  • Sediment plumes and noise damage slow-recovering ecosystems.
  • Many species are unknown; losses may be permanent.
  • Little baseline data on impacts.

Governance

  • The ISA's mining code is still not finalised; several countries back a pause.
  • India should support science-based rules and environmental baselines.

Way forward

Invest in exploration and research first, adopt the precautionary principle, and pursue recycling and land-based sources in parallel.

The ocean floor should not become the next frontier of regret.

The basics

Why this matters

The deep seabed holds nodules rich in nickel, cobalt, copper and manganese, metals needed for batteries. India now has the technology to explore and possibly mine them. An article in The Hindu asks whether it should, given how little is known about deep-sea life.

366 million tonnes
Polymetallic nodules identified in India's exploration areas
In about 95,000 sq km under three ISA contracts.

How the deep seabed is governed

Beyond national waters, the seabed is the 'common heritage of mankind', managed by the International Seabed Authority.

From exploration to mining
  1. 1Exploration contractGranted by the ISA.
  2. 2SurveysMapping, sampling and environmental baselines.
  3. 3Technology testsMining machines and lifting systems.
  4. 4ExploitationNeeds an ISA mining code, not yet final.

The case for and against

The debate is sharp.

Mine or wait?
For mining
  • Critical minerals for batteries
  • Less dependence on imports
  • Strategic presence in the ocean
vs
Against
  • Unknown ecosystems
  • Sediment plumes spread widely
  • Very slow recovery

How we got here

India has been a pioneer investor since the 1980s.

India and the deep sea
  1. 1982UNCLOS adopted
  2. 1987India becomes the first registered pioneer investor
  3. 1994ISA established
  4. 2021Deep Ocean Mission approved
  5. 2025Carlsberg Ridge contract

A careful path

Under the Deep Ocean Mission, India can build scientific baselines before any decision. The Blue economy aims to use ocean resources sustainably, within the rules of UNCLOS.

You now know

  • India holds three ISA exploration contracts covering about 95,000 sq km.
  • Polymetallic nodules contain nickel, cobalt, copper and manganese.
  • The ISA mining code for commercial exploitation is not yet final.
  • The Deep Ocean Mission (2021) includes the crewed MATSYA-6000 submersible.

Go deeper

In one line: India now has the technology to mine the deep sea, and the debate is whether it should, given how little is known about seabed ecosystems.

Why it matters for UPSC

GS3 (science and technology, conservation) and GS2 (international institutions like the ISA). Deep-sea mining is a new but rising topic.

The core idea

Polymetallic nodules on the ocean floor contain metals needed for batteries, which makes them strategically attractive. India holds three exploration contracts from the International Seabed Authority and is building mining machines and a crewed submersible under the Deep Ocean Mission. But deep-sea ecosystems recover extremely slowly, many species are unknown, and mining plumes can spread widely. The article argues India should use the exploration phase to build scientific baselines and set a high bar before any commercial mining.

Numbers and dates to remember

  • Three ISA contracts, about 95,000 sq km.
  • About 366 million tonnes of nodules identified.
  • About 1,300 deep-sea organisms recorded, around 23 new to science.

Where to go next

In one line: India's deep-sea programme can lead on science and caution rather than rushing to mine.

Environmental risks

Mining machines destroy seabed habitat, nodules take millions of years to form, and sediment plumes can smother life far away.

Global debate

Several countries back a moratorium or precautionary pause; others push to finalise the mining code at the International Seabed Authority.

India's position

India holds exploration contracts under UNCLOS and tests technology under the Deep Ocean Mission.

What caution looks like

  • Long-term environmental baselines.
  • Independent impact assessment.
  • Recycling of battery metals as an alternative.
  • Aligning with a Blue economy that values ocean health.

Where to go next

International Seabed Authority

Who governs the deep seabed

In one line: The ISA regulates mineral activities on the seabed beyond national jurisdiction.

Basis

Established in 1994 under UNCLOS and the 1994 Implementation Agreement.

Headquarters

Kingston, Jamaica.

Work

Grants exploration contracts and is drafting a mining code for commercial exploitation.

Where to go next

Deep Ocean Mission

India's ocean science programme

In one line: The Deep Ocean Mission, approved in 2021 under the Ministry of Earth Sciences, explores ocean resources and technology.

Components

Deep-sea mining technology, a crewed submersible, ocean climate services, biodiversity exploration and ocean energy.

Samudrayaan

Aims to send three people to 6,000 m in the MATSYA-6000 submersible.

Implementing body

The National Institute of Ocean Technology, Chennai, among others.

Where to go next

UNCLOS

The law of the sea

In one line: The UN Convention on the Law of the Sea (1982) sets rules for the use of the oceans.

Zones

Territorial sea (12 nautical miles), exclusive economic zone (200 nautical miles) and continental shelf.

The Area

The seabed beyond national jurisdiction is the 'common heritage of mankind'.

India

India ratified UNCLOS in 1995.

Where to go next

Blue economy

Ocean resources and sustainability

In one line: The blue economy means using ocean resources for growth while protecting ocean health.

Sectors

Fisheries, shipping, ports, coastal tourism, offshore energy and marine biotechnology.

India's interest

A long coastline and large exclusive economic zone.

Principle

Sustainable use, so that economic gains do not destroy marine ecosystems.

Where to go next

Take the 19 September 2026 quiz: 30 Prelims-style questions with answers

Syllabus

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