Explained: The Kigali Amendment turns 10 as India's demand for cooling surges
In one line: Ten years after it was adopted, the Kigali Amendment commits India to cut HFCs 85% by 2047, while its cooling needs keep growing.
Published 15 October 2026. Written by Pratidin from the reports linked at the end; every fact checked by a separate review before publishing. How we work
The Kigali Amendment to the Montreal Protocol completes ten years on 15 October 2026. Adopted in Kigali, Rwanda, on 15 October 2016, it added hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) to the list of controlled substances and entered into force on 1 January 2019. HFCs were introduced as substitutes for ozone-depleting chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs). They do not harm the ozone layer but are powerful greenhouse gases. The Indian Express explainer says full implementation could prevent 0.3°C to 0.5°C of global warming by 2100. As of 8 April 2026, 172 states and the European Union had ratified the amendment.
India's Cabinet approved ratification in August 2021, and India ratified on 27 September 2021. Its schedule, among the latest for developing countries, uses average 2024 to 2026 levels as the baseline, freezes HFC production and consumption in 2028, and then cuts 10% by 2032, 20% by 2037, 30% by 2042 and 85% by 2047. In 2021 the government said it would draw up a national HFC phase-down strategy by 2023 and amend the Ozone Depleting Substances (Regulation and Control) Rules by mid-2024. The Multilateral Fund under the Montreal Protocol helps developing countries with the technology change.
The challenge, the explainer argues, is that India's cooling demand is booming. It says cooling already accounts for over a tenth of India's annual electricity demand, rising to about a third on hot summer nights, and that demand is projected to more than double by 2035. The India Cooling Action Plan (ICAP) of March 2019 projected cooling demand to grow about eight times by 2037-38 from 2017-18, and set goals of cutting cooling demand by 20% to 25%, refrigerant demand by 25% to 30% and cooling energy needs by 25% to 40% by 2037-38. The explainer cites the UN Environment Programme and the International Energy Agency as saying that pairing the HFC shift with better cooling efficiency could double the climate benefit.
Prelims facts
- The Kigali Amendment was adopted on 15 October 2016 and entered into force on 1 January 2019; it brings HFCs under the Montreal Protocol.
- HFCs do not deplete the ozone layer but are potent greenhouse gases.
- India ratified on 27 September 2021: baseline 2024 to 2026, freeze in 2028, 85% cut by 2047.
- The India Cooling Action Plan (March 2019) projects cooling demand to grow about eight times by 2037-38 from 2017-18.
- The Montreal Protocol has 198 parties and is the first UN treaty to be universally ratified.
Quick recall
- When and where was the Kigali Amendment adopted?
- 15 October 2016, in Kigali, Rwanda.
- When did the Kigali Amendment enter into force?
- 1 January 2019.
- When did India ratify the Kigali Amendment?
- 27 September 2021, after Cabinet approval in August 2021.
- India's HFC baseline years?
- Average of 2024 to 2026 levels.
- India's HFC freeze year?
- 2028.
- India's final HFC phase-down target?
- 85% cut from baseline by 2047.
- Cooling demand growth projected in the India Cooling Action Plan?
- About eight times by 2037-38 compared with 2017-18.
- Number of parties to the Montreal Protocol?
- 198 (197 states plus the EU); it is universally ratified.
Prelims practice question
With reference to the Kigali Amendment to the Montreal Protocol, consider the following statements:
1. It seeks to phase down hydrofluorocarbons.
2. Hydrofluorocarbons are ozone-depleting substances.
3. India's commitment includes an 85% reduction from its baseline by 2047.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
- 1 only
- 1 and 3 only
- 2 and 3 only
- 1, 2 and 3
Show answer
Answer: (b) 1 and 3 only. Statement 1 is correct. Statement 2 is wrong: HFCs contain no chlorine and do not deplete the ozone layer; they are controlled because they are strong greenhouse gases. Statement 3 is correct: India's schedule ends with an 85% cut by 2047.
Use this in UPSC Mains: previous-year questions
Recurring theme: Global environmental agreements and India's climate commitments: ozone, HFCs and cooling
- How to use this
Use Kigali to show India accepting binding climate-related targets while securing later timelines suited to a developing, hot country.
- India ratified the Kigali Amendment on 27 September 2021, committing to freeze HFCs in 2028 and cut them 85% by 2047.
- Its baseline of 2024 to 2026 and late schedule reflect differentiated responsibilities, with Multilateral Fund support for the transition.
- The India Cooling Action Plan (2019) pairs the refrigerant shift with targets to cut cooling energy needs by 25% to 40% by 2037-38.
Rising heat is driving India's cooling demand, but the story is about HFC phase-down rather than climate impacts on Himalayan and coastal States.
Mains practice question
Ten years after the Kigali Amendment, India's demand for cooling is rising rapidly. Examine how India can meet its HFC phase-down commitments without compromising access to cooling. (250 words)
Model answer
The Kigali Amendment, adopted on 15 October 2016, brought hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) under the Montreal Protocol. India ratified it in 2021 and must freeze HFC use in 2028 and cut it 85% by 2047, just as cooling demand surges.
The challenge
- Demand: the India Cooling Action Plan (ICAP) projects cooling demand to grow about eight times by 2037-38 from 2017-18.
- Power: cooling takes over a tenth of annual electricity demand and about a third on hot summer nights, according to the Indian Express explainer.
- Equity: cooling is a need in a hot country; heat exposure harms health and productivity.
- Servicing: leaks during repair release refrigerants, so technician skills matter.
What India can do
- Follow the schedule: baseline 2024 to 2026, freeze 2028, cuts of 10% (2032), 20% (2037), 30% (2042) and 85% (2047).
- Pair gas change with efficiency: UNEP and the IEA say this could double the climate benefit.
- Use ICAP goals: cut cooling demand 20% to 25%, refrigerant demand 25% to 30% and cooling energy 25% to 40% by 2037-38.
- Reduce the need for cooling: building design and passive cooling lower demand before machines are bought.
- Train technicians: ICAP targeted 1,00,000 certified servicing technicians by 2022-23.
- Use finance: the Multilateral Fund supports developing countries' transition.
Way forward
- Notify HFC controls under the Ozone Depleting Substances Rules on time.
- Link appliance efficiency standards to the refrigerant shift.
India can treat Kigali as an opportunity to build efficient, affordable cooling, so that climate goals and thermal comfort advance together.
The basics
Why this matters
The Kigali Amendment was adopted on 15 October 2016. It brought hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), the gases that cool our refrigerators and air conditioners, under the ozone treaty because they warm the planet. For India, a hot country whose cooling needs are rising fast, the question is how to cut HFCs without cutting access to cooling. Environment and international agreements are core to GS3 and Prelims.
From ozone to climate
The Montreal Protocol of 1987 phased out ozone-depleting chemicals such as chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs). Industry moved to HFCs, which contain no chlorine and do not harm the ozone layer. But HFCs are strong greenhouse gases: their global warming potential (GWP), the heat they trap compared with the same mass of carbon dioxide, ranges from about 12 to 14,800. The Kigali Amendment fixed this side effect.
- 1985Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer
- 16 September 1987Montreal Protocol signed
- 19 June 1992India becomes a Party to the Montreal Protocol
- 15 October 2016Kigali Amendment adopted in Rwanda
- 1 January 2019Kigali Amendment enters into force
- 27 September 2021India ratifies the Kigali Amendment
How the phase-down works
Countries cut HFC production and consumption in steps from a baseline. Developing countries get later dates. India is in the later group, with a baseline of 2024 to 2026 levels (see India's HFC phase-down schedule).
- 1BaselineAverage of 2024 to 2026 levels
- 22028Freeze at baseline
- 3203210% cut
- 4203720% cut
- 5204230% cut
- 6204785% cut, leaving 15% of baseline
The cooling challenge
Cooling demand in India is set to climb steeply. The India Cooling Action Plan of 2019 projected nationwide cooling demand to grow about eight times by 2037-38 from 2017-18. The Indian Express explainer notes that cooling already takes over a tenth of India's annual electricity demand and about a third on hot summer nights. So the HFC shift and Energy-efficient cooling must go together: a cleaner gas in an inefficient machine still burns more power.
Go deeper
Why it matters for UPSC
Prelims asks about the ozone treaties, HFCs and India's dates. Mains asks how India balances climate commitments with development needs such as cooling in a warming country.
The core idea
The Montreal Protocol solved the ozone problem but pushed industry towards HFCs, which warm the climate. Kigali adds HFCs to the Protocol, and India's HFC phase-down schedule runs from a 2028 freeze to an 85% cut in 2047. The India Cooling Action Plan tries to meet rising demand with less refrigerant and less power, which is why Energy-efficient cooling is the other half of the answer.
Numbers and dates to remember
- Adopted 15 October 2016; in force 1 January 2019.
- India ratified: 27 September 2021.
- India: baseline 2024 to 2026; freeze 2028; cuts 10% (2032), 20% (2037), 30% (2042), 85% (2047).
- ICAP: cooling demand about eight times by 2037-38 from 2017-18.
- 172 states plus the EU had ratified Kigali by 8 April 2026.
Where to go next
- Montreal Protocol: the ozone treaty that Kigali amends.
- India's HFC phase-down schedule: the dates and steps India has accepted.
- India Cooling Action Plan: India's 20-year plan for cooling.
- Energy-efficient cooling: why efficiency doubles the climate gain.
Go deeper: can India cut HFCs and still cool its people?
Why the deal suits India. Under the Montreal Protocol, developing countries get more time, and India secured one of the latest schedules, with a 2028 freeze and an 85% cut only by 2047. This gives domestic industry time to shift to alternatives. The Multilateral Fund helps meet the extra costs of the transition. Cutting short-lived climate pollutants like HFCs slows warming relatively fast, which complements long-term carbon dioxide cuts under the Paris Agreement.
Why it is hard. Demand is rising fast. The India Cooling Action Plan expects cooling demand to grow about eight times by 2037-38, and the Indian Express explainer says it could more than double by 2035. Cooling already uses over a tenth of India's electricity in a year and about a third on hot summer nights, so more air conditioners mean higher peak demand. Refrigerant leaks during servicing are another source of emissions.
The efficiency link. UNEP and the IEA say combining the HFC transition with better efficiency could double the climate benefit. Energy-efficient cooling cuts both direct emissions from the gas and indirect emissions from power plants. ICAP's goals include a 25% to 40% cut in cooling energy needs by 2037-38.
Delivery. In 2021 the government promised a national strategy by 2023 and amendments to the Ozone Depleting Substances Rules by mid-2024 to control HFCs. Meeting India's HFC phase-down schedule depends on these rules, on training servicing technicians and on affordable low-GWP equipment.
Montreal Protocol
The ozone treaty that Kigali amends.
In one line: The Montreal Protocol, signed on 16 September 1987, phases out substances that deplete the ozone layer, and is the first UN treaty ratified by every country.
How it works
It sets dated targets to end production and consumption of chemicals such as CFCs and HCFCs. It came into force on 1 January 1989 and built on the Vienna Convention of 1985. Developing countries, called Article 5 countries, get extra time. A Multilateral Fund helps them meet the costs.
Why it matters now
The Protocol has 198 parties. Scientific assessments project the ozone layer to recover to 1980 levels around 2040 over most of the world, 2045 over the Arctic and 2066 over Antarctica. Its success with CFCs led to HFCs, which the Kigali Amendment now controls. India joined on 19 June 1992.
Where to go next
- India's HFC phase-down schedule
- Energy-efficient cooling
India's HFC phase-down schedule
The dates and steps India has accepted.
In one line: India must freeze HFC production and consumption in 2028 and cut them by 85% from its baseline by 2047.
The steps
- Baseline: average of 2024 to 2026 levels.
- 2028: freeze.
- 2032: 10% cut. 2037: 20%. 2042: 30%. 2047: 85%.
Why India got later dates
Developing countries have later schedules than developed ones. India's group, described as high-ambient-temperature countries and including Saudi Arabia, has one of the latest schedules.
Putting it into law
The Cabinet approved ratification in August 2021, and India ratified on 27 September 2021. The government said it would prepare a national strategy by 2023 and amend the Ozone Depleting Substances (Regulation and Control) Rules by mid-2024 to control HFCs.
Where to go next
India Cooling Action Plan
India's 20-year plan for cooling.
In one line: The India Cooling Action Plan (ICAP), released by the Environment Ministry in March 2019, is a 20-year plan (2017-18 to 2037-38) to meet cooling needs while cutting refrigerant use and energy demand.
Its goals for 2037-38
- Reduce cooling demand across sectors by 20% to 25%.
- Reduce refrigerant demand by 25% to 30%.
- Reduce cooling energy requirements by 25% to 40%.
- Train and certify 1,00,000 servicing technicians by 2022-23.
Why it matters
ICAP projects national cooling demand to grow about eight times by 2037-38 from 2017-18.
Where to go next
- Energy-efficient cooling
- India's HFC phase-down schedule
Energy-efficient cooling
Why efficiency doubles the climate gain.
In one line: Energy-efficient cooling delivers the same comfort with less electricity, cutting the indirect emissions from power plants that run air conditioners.
Two sources of emissions
A cooling device warms the climate in two ways: directly, when its refrigerant leaks, and indirectly, through the electricity it uses. Kigali tackles the first. Efficiency tackles the second. UNEP and the IEA say doing both could double the climate benefit of the HFC transition.
Why it matters for India
The Indian Express explainer says cooling takes over a tenth of India's annual electricity and about a third on hot summer nights. Efficient appliances, better building design and passive cooling reduce peak demand as well as emissions. ICAP aims to cut cooling energy needs by 25% to 40% by 2037-38.
Where to go next
Take the 15 October 2026 quiz: 30 Prelims-style questions with answers