Hindi Diwas: how the Constituent Assembly settled India's language question
Why does the Constitution call Hindi the 'official language' of the Union and never the 'national language'?
Published 15 September 2026. Written by Pratidin from the reports linked at the end; every fact checked by a separate review before publishing. How we work
The Indian Express Explained page of 15 September 2026, a day after Hindi Diwas, revisits how the Constituent Assembly resolved India's language question. On 14 September 1949, after debating the draft provisions on 12, 13 and 14 September, the Assembly adopted the Munshi-Ayyangar formula, named after K.M. Munshi and N. Gopalaswami Ayyangar. It now forms Part XVII of the Constitution (Articles 343 to 351). Article 343(1) says the official language of the Union shall be Hindi in Devanagari script, and that the numerals used for official purposes shall be the international form of Indian numerals. Article 343(2) let English continue for all official purposes of the Union for 15 years from the commencement of the Constitution, and Article 343(3) allowed Parliament to provide by law for its use after that. The formula used the term 'official language', not 'national language'. The Union Home Ministry marked Hindi Diwas 2026 with the 6th All India Official Language Conference.
The rest of Part XVII builds a layered scheme. Article 344 required the President to set up an Official Language Commission five years and again ten years after the Constitution began, and provided for a committee of 30 MPs (20 from the Lok Sabha and 10 from the Rajya Sabha) to examine its recommendations. The first Commission, chaired by B.G. Kher, was appointed on 7 June 1955 and reported on 31 July 1956. Article 345 lets each State adopt its own official language or languages. Article 348 keeps English as the language of proceedings in the Supreme Court and every High Court, and of the authoritative texts of Bills, Acts and Ordinances, until Parliament provides otherwise. Article 351 makes it the Union's duty to promote the spread of Hindi, drawing for vocabulary 'primarily on Sanskrit and secondarily on other languages'. The Eighth Schedule began with 14 languages and now lists 22, after additions by the 21st (1967), 71st (1992) and 92nd (2003) Amendments.
The 15-year deadline tested the compromise. The Official Languages Act, 1963 provided for English to continue alongside Hindi, with its key section taking effect on 26 January 1965. Fear that English would still be phased out set off protests in several States, most violently in Madras State, where a clash in Madurai on 25 January 1965 turned into a riot; official estimates put the deaths in the agitation at about 70. In 1967 the Act was amended so that English would not be ended until the legislature of every State that had not adopted Hindi passed a resolution to that effect, which in practice made bilingualism open-ended. The explainer presents the formula as a compromise that held a multilingual Union together. Supporters of Hindi argue that the duty in Article 351 remains unfinished, while critics in non-Hindi States see any push beyond the formula as imposition.
Prelims facts
- The Constituent Assembly adopted the Munshi-Ayyangar formula on 14 September 1949, the date now observed as Hindi Diwas.
- Article 343(1): the official language of the Union is Hindi in Devanagari script, and the international form of Indian numerals is used for official purposes.
- Article 343(2) allowed English for the Union's official purposes for 15 years; the Official Languages Act, 1963 and its 1967 amendment continued it without an end date.
- Article 344 provides for an Official Language Commission and a 30-member committee of Parliament (20 Lok Sabha, 10 Rajya Sabha); the first Commission was chaired by B.G. Kher (1955).
- The Eighth Schedule began with 14 languages and now has 22, after the 21st (1967), 71st (1992) and 92nd (2003) Amendments.
Quick recall
- On what date did the Constituent Assembly adopt the Munshi-Ayyangar formula?
- 14 September 1949, now observed as Hindi Diwas.
- Which article makes Hindi in Devanagari script the official language of the Union?
- Article 343(1).
- What form of numerals does Article 343 prescribe for the Union's official purposes?
- The international form of Indian numerals.
- For how long did Article 343(2) allow English to continue?
- 15 years from the commencement of the Constitution.
- How is the committee of Parliament under Article 344 composed?
- 30 members: 20 from the Lok Sabha and 10 from the Rajya Sabha, elected by single transferable vote.
- Who chaired the first Official Language Commission?
- B.G. Kher (appointed 7 June 1955; report 31 July 1956).
- What did the 1967 amendment to the Official Languages Act provide?
- English would not be ended until the legislature of every State that had not adopted Hindi passed a resolution to that effect.
- Which amendments raised the Eighth Schedule from 14 to 22 languages?
- 21st (1967, Sindhi), 71st (1992, Konkani, Manipuri, Nepali) and 92nd (2003, Bodo, Dogri, Maithili, Santali).
Prelims practice question
With reference to the official language provisions of the Constitution of India, which one of the following statements is correct?
- The Constitution declares Hindi to be the national language of India.
- Article 343 prescribes the Devanagari form of numerals as the only numerals for official purposes of the Union.
- Article 351 directs the Union to develop Hindi by drawing for its vocabulary primarily on Sanskrit and secondarily on other languages.
- Article 348 requires all proceedings of the Supreme Court to be conducted in Hindi from 1965.
Show answer
Answer: (c) Article 351 directs the Union to develop Hindi by drawing for its vocabulary primarily on Sanskrit and secondarily on other languages.. The Constitution uses only the term 'official language' and names no national language. Article 343(1) prescribes the international form of Indian numerals; Devanagari numerals may be used only if authorised by the President (during the first 15 years) or by Parliament by law. Article 351 asks the Union to draw 'primarily on Sanskrit and secondarily on other languages'. Article 348 keeps English for Supreme Court and High Court proceedings until Parliament provides otherwise.
Use this in UPSC Mains: previous-year questions
Recurring theme: Language, federalism and national integration after independence
Has the formation of linguistic states strengthened the cause of Indian unity?
How to use thisThe language settlement shows that accommodation rather than imposition kept a multilingual Union together, complementing the linguistic States argument.
- The Munshi-Ayyangar formula adopted on 14 September 1949 chose the term 'official language', not 'national language', for Hindi in Devanagari script (Article 343(1)).
- Article 345 lets each State adopt its own official language, and the Eighth Schedule grew from 14 to 22 languages via the 21st, 71st and 92nd Amendments.
- After the 1965 protests in Madras State, the 1967 amendment to the Official Languages Act continued English until every non-Hindi State resolves otherwise.
Linguistic reorganization of Indian States was driven by popular pressure from below. Comment.
How to use thisThe 1965 anti-Hindi agitation in Madras State shows popular pressure from below reshaping language policy, the same dynamic as linguistic reorganisation.
- As the 15-year English deadline under Article 343(2) approached, fear of English being phased out set off protests in several States, most violently in Madras State.
- A clash in Madurai on 25 January 1965 turned into a riot; official estimates put the deaths in the agitation at about 70.
- The 1967 amendment to the Official Languages Act, 1963 ensured English would not end until every State that had not adopted Hindi passed a resolution, making bilingualism open-ended.
- How to use this
Part XVII of the Constitution is a clear case of the federal framework accommodating linguistic diversity while promoting a Union language.
- Article 345 lets each State adopt its own official language or languages, while Article 343(1) makes Hindi in Devanagari the Union's official language.
- Article 348 keeps English for the Supreme Court, High Courts and authoritative texts of laws until Parliament provides otherwise.
- The 1967 amendment to the Official Languages Act gave non-Hindi States an effective veto on ending English, a consent-based way of resolving a cultural dispute.
Mains practice question
The Munshi-Ayyangar formula made Hindi the official language of the Union without making it the national language. Examine how the Constitution and later legislation balanced the promotion of Hindi with India's linguistic diversity. (250 words)
Model answer
On 14 September 1949 the Constituent Assembly adopted the Munshi-Ayyangar formula, now Part XVII of the Constitution (Articles 343 to 351). It chose the term 'official language' and avoided a 'national language'.
Promotion of Hindi
- Article 343(1): Hindi in Devanagari script is the official language of the Union.
- Article 344: an Official Language Commission (the first under B.G. Kher, 1955) and a 30-member committee of Parliament to review progress.
- Article 351: a duty on the Union to spread and develop Hindi.
Safeguards for diversity
- Article 343(2) and (3): English for 15 years, and after that as Parliament provides by law.
- Article 345: each State adopts its own official language or languages.
- Article 348: English remains the language of the Supreme Court, High Courts and authoritative legal texts until Parliament provides otherwise.
- Eighth Schedule: widened from 14 to 22 languages by the 21st, 71st and 92nd Amendments.
Legislation after 1965
- The Official Languages Act, 1963 continued English alongside Hindi from 26 January 1965.
- Protests in Madras State (about 70 deaths by official estimates) led to the 1967 amendment: English continues until every State that has not adopted Hindi resolves otherwise.
Assessment
- No language is imposed on a State, and English remains a link between the Union and non-Hindi States.
- Article 351 keeps the promotion of Hindi alive, so debate returns whenever the Union is seen to push beyond the settlement.
The formula shows that unity in a multilingual federation rests on consent rather than compulsion.
The basics
Why this matters
The Constitution of India names no 'national language'. It names an official language of the Union, and it lets every State choose its own. That design was fixed on 14 September 1949, the day now marked as Hindi Diwas, and UPSC tests both the articles and the history behind them.
Official language, not national language
An official language is the language a government uses for its own work: laws, files, letters and records. A national language would be a symbol of the nation itself. The Constituent Assembly was divided between members who wanted Hindi as the language of the new Union and members from non-Hindi regions who feared being shut out. The Article 343 and the Munshi-Ayyangar formula settled the matter: Hindi in Devanagari script became the official language of the Union, and English was to continue for 15 years.
- 1Articles 343 to 344Language of the Union: Hindi in Devanagari, English for 15 years, a Commission and a committee of Parliament to review progress
- 2Articles 345 to 347Regional languages: each State chooses its official language or languages
- 3Articles 348 to 349English for the Supreme Court, High Courts and authoritative texts of laws until Parliament provides otherwise
- 4Articles 350 to 351Special directives: grievances in any language used in the Union or State, mother-tongue teaching at the primary stage, and the duty to develop Hindi
A compromise with a clock
The 15-year period ran out on 26 January 1965. The Official Languages Act, 1963 had already provided for English to continue alongside Hindi, but fear that English would still be dropped set off protests, most violently in Madras State. A 1967 amendment then made English continue until every State that had not adopted Hindi agreed otherwise.
- 14 September 1949Constituent Assembly adopts the Munshi-Ayyangar formula
- 26 January 1950Constitution comes into force; the 15-year period for English begins
- 7 June 1955First Official Language Commission appointed under B.G. Kher
- 1963Official Languages Act provides for English alongside Hindi
- 26 January 196515-year period ends; protests in Madras State and elsewhere
- 1967Amendment makes the continuation of English open-ended
Many languages, one Schedule
The Eighth Schedule of the Constitution lists the languages of India recognised by the Constitution. It has grown from 14 to 22. Meanwhile Article 351 and the Union's duty to develop Hindi asks the Union to spread Hindi by drawing on Hindustani and the other Eighth Schedule languages.
Go deeper
In one line: On 14 September 1949 the Constituent Assembly made Hindi in Devanagari script the official language of the Union, kept English for 15 years and let States choose their own languages, a settlement later extended by law.
Why it matters for UPSC
Language provisions are a steady Prelims theme (Articles 343 to 351, the Eighth Schedule, amendments that added languages) and a Mains theme on federalism, national integration and post-independence consolidation. Hindi Diwas each year brings the debate back.
The core idea
The Article 343 and the Munshi-Ayyangar formula chose the words 'official language' and avoided a 'national language'. English was to fade out after 15 years, but Article 343(3) let Parliament keep it by law, which it did through the Official Languages Act, 1963. The Eighth Schedule of the Constitution recognises the country's major languages, and Article 351 and the Union's duty to develop Hindi gives the Union a duty to develop Hindi in a way that draws on the other languages of India. Together these make a layered system: Hindi for the Union, State languages for the States, and English as a continuing link.
Numbers and dates to remember
- 12 to 14 September 1949: debate; 14 September: adoption of the formula.
- 15 years: the original period for English under Article 343(2).
- 30: members of the parliamentary committee under Article 344 (20 Lok Sabha, 10 Rajya Sabha).
- 7 June 1955: B.G. Kher appointed to chair the first Official Language Commission.
- 26 January 1965: the key section of the Official Languages Act takes effect.
- 14 to 22: growth of the Eighth Schedule.
Where to go next
- Article 343 and the Munshi-Ayyangar formula: the exact words that made Hindi the official language.
- Official Languages Act, 1963: how English stayed on after 1965.
- Eighth Schedule of the Constitution: the 22 languages and how they were added.
- Article 351 and the Union's duty to develop Hindi: the directive and why it is contested.
Go deeper: was the formula a success?
The case that it worked. The settlement avoided declaring any language 'national' and gave States control of their own official languages through Article 345. When the 15-year deadline approached, Parliament used the power in the Article 343 and the Munshi-Ayyangar formula to keep English through the Official Languages Act, 1963. After protests in 1965, the 1967 amendment made the continuation of English depend on the consent of every State that had not adopted Hindi.
The case that it left tensions unresolved. Article 351 still asks the Union to promote the spread of Hindi, and the Commission and committee under Article 344 exist to review progress in its use. Each push to widen Hindi's official role revives the fear of imposition in non-Hindi States. The 1965 agitation in Madras State, in which official estimates put the deaths at about 70, shows how high the stakes can run.
How the Constitution balances the two. Article 348 keeps English in the Supreme Court and High Courts until Parliament provides otherwise. Article 350A asks States to provide instruction in the mother tongue at the primary stage for children of linguistic minority groups, and Article 350B provides a Special Officer for linguistic minorities. The Eighth Schedule of the Constitution has been widened three times, from 14 to 22 languages, and Article 351 and the Union's duty to develop Hindi itself requires Hindi to grow by assimilating from Hindustani and the other scheduled languages. The explainer presents the formula as a compromise that held the Union together; the continuing debate is over how far the Union may go in promoting Hindi without breaking that compromise.
Article 343 and the Munshi-Ayyangar formula
The exact words that made Hindi the official language and kept English for 15 years.
In one line: Article 343 makes Hindi in Devanagari script the official language of the Union, with the international form of Indian numerals, and let English continue for 15 years.
The text
Article 343(1) says the official language of the Union shall be Hindi in Devanagari script, and the form of numerals for official purposes shall be the international form of Indian numerals. Article 343(2) let English continue for all official purposes for which it was being used, for 15 years from the commencement of the Constitution. The President could authorise Hindi and Devanagari numerals in addition to English during that period. Article 343(3) allows Parliament to provide by law for English, or Devanagari numerals, after the 15 years.
The formula
The provisions were introduced on 12 September 1949 and debated on 12, 13 and 14 September. The package was named after K.M. Munshi and N. Gopalaswami Ayyangar. An amendment to replace Hindi with Hindustani failed. Numerals were a contested point, settled by leaving the use of Devanagari numerals to Presidential order during the 15 years and to Parliament after that. The formula was adopted on 14 September 1949, now Hindi Diwas.
Where to go next
Official Languages Act, 1963
How English stayed on after 1965, and why the Act was amended in 1967.
In one line: The Official Languages Act, 1963 used Parliament's power under Article 343(3) to keep English in use alongside Hindi after 26 January 1965.
What it does
The Constitution had set a 15-year period for English. Parliament passed the Official Languages Act in 1963 to provide for English to continue as an official language alongside Hindi. Its key section took effect on 26 January 1965, when the 15-year period ended. Section 4 of the Act deals with the committee of Parliament that reviews progress in the use of Hindi for official purposes of the Union.
Why it was amended
In late 1964 and early 1965 fears that English would be dropped led to protests in several States. In Madras State a clash in Madurai on 25 January 1965 turned into a riot, and official estimates put the deaths in the agitation at about 70. The Act was amended in 1967 so that the use of English would not end until the legislature of every State that had not adopted Hindi passed a resolution to that effect. In practice this made bilingualism open-ended.
Where to go next
- Article 343 and the Munshi-Ayyangar formula
- Article 351 and the Union's duty to develop Hindi
Eighth Schedule of the Constitution
The 22 recognised languages and the amendments that added them.
In one line: The Eighth Schedule lists the languages of India recognised by the Constitution; it began with 14 and now has 22.
What it is for
The Eighth Schedule is referred to in Articles 344 and 351. The Official Language Commission under Article 344 was to include members representing the Eighth Schedule languages, and Article 351 asks the Union to enrich Hindi by assimilating forms, style and expressions from Hindustani and these languages. Inclusion gives a language recognition and a claim on the Union's attention; it does not make it an official language of the Union.
How it grew
- 1950: 14 languages.
- 1967: Sindhi added by the 21st Amendment.
- 1992: Konkani, Manipuri and Nepali added by the 71st Amendment.
- 2003: Bodo, Dogri, Maithili and Santali added by the 92nd Amendment.
Additions need a constitutional amendment passed by Parliament, which is why demands for inclusion of other languages recur.
Where to go next
- Article 351 and the Union's duty to develop Hindi
- Article 343 and the Munshi-Ayyangar formula
Article 351 and the Union's duty to develop Hindi
The directive to develop Hindi and why it is contested.
In one line: Article 351 makes it the duty of the Union to promote the spread of Hindi and develop it as a medium of expression for India's composite culture.
The text
Article 351 says it shall be the duty of the Union to promote the spread of the Hindi language and to develop it so that it may serve as a medium of expression for all the elements of the composite culture of India. It asks the Union to enrich Hindi by assimilating, without interfering with its genius, the forms, style and expressions used in Hindustani and in the other Eighth Schedule languages, and to draw on vocabulary 'primarily on Sanskrit and secondarily on other languages'. It was adopted without amendment on 14 September 1949.
Why it is debated
Supporters of Hindi read Article 351 as an unfinished promise. Critics in non-Hindi States read efforts under it as a route to imposition. The text itself points to a Hindi that grows by drawing on other Indian languages, not one that replaces them, and it sits beside Article 345, which lets States choose their own languages.
Where to go next
Take the 15 September 2026 quiz: 30 Prelims-style questions with answers